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About the Book South America has a history that reflects a wide range of human cultures and forms of civilization. In South America, the Norte Chico civilization in Peru is the oldest civilization in the Americas and while development was interrupted by Portuguese and Spanish colonization, and a demographic collapse ensued, the continent's mestizo and indigenous cultures remain distinct from those of the colonizers. This was one of the first six independent civilizations in the world, being contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. With their capital at the city of Cuzco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes from 1438 to 1533. The Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed, with its rule extending to nearly a hundred linguistic / ethnic communities, and between 9 and 14 million people being connected via a 25,000-kilometer road system. Beginning in 1499, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. Claiming the land and resources as their own, these powers divided it into colonies. European diseases, to which the native populations had no resistance, caused a collapse of the Native American population. The Spanish colonies achieved independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, during the Spanish American wars of independence. Simón Bolívar (Greater Colombia, Peru, Bolivia), José de San Martín (United Provinces of the River Plate, Chile, and Peru), and Bernardo O'Higgins (Chile) led the independence movements. Brazilian independence came about as a consequence of Napoleonic Invasions of Portugal in December 1807. Some South American countries did not gain independence until much later: Panama, from Colombia, in 1903; Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966; Suriname, from the Dutch control, in 1975; and Trinidad and Tobago, from the United Kingdom, in 1962. About us Leopold Classic Library has the goal of making available to readers the classic books that have been out of print for decades. While these books may have occasional imperfections, we consider that only hand checking of every page ensures readable content without poor picture quality, blurred or missing text etc. That's why we: republish only hand checked books; that are high quality; enabling readers to see classic books in original formats; that are unlikely to have missing or blurred pages. You can search "Leopold Classic Library" in categories of your interest to find other books in our extensive collection. Happy reading!